Kunihiro Tsuchida, Teruyo Oishi, Akiyoshi Uezumi and Harumoto Yamada
Heterotopic ossification (HO) is caused by trauma, neurogenic insults, and genetic disorders. Recent detailed analyses have revealed a cellular origin for ectopic bone formation as novel mesenchymal progenitors. The differentiation of these into osteogenic lineages is induced by a pathological microenvironment in soft tissues outside the skeletal tissue, which includes inflammation. Multiple therapeutic strategies for preventing ectopic bone formation have recently emerged, including inhibition of bone morphogenetic protein signaling and retinoid signaling.
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