Astrophysics & Aerospace Technology

As humanity's reach expands beyond the confines of Earth, the domain of structural development has transcended its terrestrial origins to encompass extra-terrestrial frontiers. The exploration and colonization of space have necessitated the creation of structures capable of withstanding the harsh conditions and unique challenges posed by environments beyond our planet. Uniting aspects of terrestrial and extra-terrestrial structural development has become a compelling area of research, as it holds the potential to leverage our understanding of engineering principles from domains fostering innovation and resilience across various realms of construction.

The study of cosmology, the scientific understanding of the origin, evolution, and structure of the universe, has witnessed remarkable progress in recent years. One of the intriguing areas of investigation within cosmology is the primordial power spectrum. This spectrum holds crucial information about the early universe and its subsequent evolution. Altered cosmological theories have emerged, seeking to refine our understanding of the primordial power spectrum. In this exploration, we delve into the interplay between space-time thermodynamics and loop quantum cosmology, examining how they contribute to an altered perspective on the primordial power spectrum.

In this paper I have tried to derive an equation of my own using Professor Ray Chowdhury's equation which shows the constructing state of the universe just like the Ray Chowdhury equation. Hubble expansion rate and time act as special factors in my equation. In short it says we may get a singularity in the distant future not only in past.

Only one gravitational interaction is not enough to explain the anomalous high speeds of rotation of stars on the outskirts of galaxies. Therefore, several approaches have been proposed by various authors, including the existence of dark matter, deformation of the gravitational interaction itself at ultra-long distances, modifications of Newton's classical laws, the introduction of additional additive potentials that are weaker than the gravitational interaction, but which decrease with distance relatively "slower" than the actual gravitational interaction. All these approaches make it possible to explain the experimental data on the velocities of stars, but within the limits of the size of the galaxy. For even more distant distances, the accelerated expansion of the Universe is established. So, to explain this, the concept of dark energy was introduced earlier. The approaches proposed earlier cannot fully explain all the features of the motion of galaxies relative to each other. At the same time, the introduction of two additional potential interactions (with the forces δMm/R and -βMm/R_n) formally makes it possible to explain most of the experimentally found features of the motion of stars at sub galactic and intergalactic distances.

Basically in this paper I have tried to show how the Dark Age of our universe started. After the recombination phase of the Big Bang, the universe was shrouded in darkness for some 100 to 200 million years. At this time ordinary matter particles entered the structures created by dark matter. And their gravitational collapse helped create the massive structures in the universe today. All the large structures that we see in the universe today were once organized by the events that took place during the dark ages. Also towards the end of the paper I have tried to provide some observational data, both from gravitational lensing and WMAP satellites. Let's shed some light on the Dark Ages.

Newton's law of universal gravitation was discovered by him, perhaps in 1679, and published in 1687 in his paper “Principia”. At the beginning, he simply established a correspondence between the gravitational force F and the masses m₁ and m₂ of 2 point objects located at a distance r between them: F ~ m₁m₂/r². However, this dependence is not a strict physical law, since the numerical value of the gravitational force found from it is not its real value. Therefore, instead of similarity, a transition coefficient should be introduced. It was first determined experimentally by Cavendish in 1798. Further, this coefficient was presented as the gravitational constant G. However, Cavendish did not connect G with Newton's dependence, but used it only to calculate the Earth's mass M within the framework of the GM combination. The constant G from this combination was identified by Jolly in 1878, which reduced Newton's original dependence to the real law of universal gravitation F=Gm₁m₂/r², which is currently used. However, Newton got his dependence on the basis of the rotation of the Moon around the Earth, whose orbit is close to circular. Therefore, the radius r in it was taken constant. This law is being criticized because it does not operate at the planetary level, where the planets of the solar system do not move in a circular orbit, but, elliptical, within the framework of Kepler's laws. Eliminating the discrepancy between Newton's law of universal gravitation and Kepler's laws is the goal main of this work, and the formulation of a new corrected law is its scientific novelty. As a result of this work, it was proposed to replace the radius r with the current value r_i in Newton's law, which can change according to its own laws. In this case, the new value of the law of universal gravitation has the form: F=Gm₁m₂/r_i². Unlike the original Newton's law, in which the radius r=const, in the corrected law r_i=var, so the original law is a special case of the corrected law. In this case, the value of the radius r_i² can be obtained through the coordinate’s x_i², y_i² of the current points of the trajectory of the center of mass m₂ of an object of smaller magnitude relative to the center of mass m₁ of an object of larger magnitude. For an object with a spatial form of the trajectory of the center of mass, the 3^rd coordinate z_i² is added to determine this radius. In its final form, the new law of universal gravitation will be expressed by the dependence: F=Gm₁m₂/(x_i²+y_i²+z_i²). Thus, despite the criticism of Newton's law by opponents, he is acted, acts and will act in the material world. Conclusion, the Proposed revised law of universal gravitation are recommended for use in scientific research. This corrected version should be included in all textbooks and reference books on physics, incl. in the encyclopaedia.

Geomagnetic storms are impactful space weather occurrences because they may disrupt power grids, communication systems, and spacecraft operations. The MC sheath, the leading (or front section) area of an MC, the trailing part of an MC, and collective sheath and MC regions can cause an extensive geomagnetic storm. This paper uses descriptive analysis to identify them with helio-spheric phenomena using the Disturbance Storm Time Index (Dst). Depending on the availability of data during the period of solar cycle 24, we include the four extensive geomagnetic storms allied with various solar parameters/interplanetary magnetic field components that were potentially geo-effective and occurred on "St. Patrick's Day" (17 March 2015), (23 June 2015), (20 Dec 2015), and (26 Aug 2018).