Veterinary Science & Technology

Understanding disease transmission routes and implications for biosecurity is critical to mitigating livestock disease outbreaks and maintaining efficient and profitable production. The goal of biosecurity is to eliminate pathogen exposure and minimize endemic pathogen impact, particularly important for foreign animal diseases that threaten U.S. animal health and the economy. We elicit swine, beef cattle, and dairy expert views on the effectiveness, feasibility, and implementation of both biosecurity measures targeting disease transmission routes and specific biosecurity measures. Biosecurity targeting direct animal-to-animal contact, semen, people, and vehicles and other fomites was identified as the most effective and feasible for the swine, beef cattle, and dairy industries. Efforts targeting airborne and arthropod transmission were ranked low for effectiveness and feasibility across all three industries. The swine industry had higher estimated implementation of biosecurity against most disease transmission routes. All-in and all-out production had the highest estimated implementation in the swine industry. In the beef cattle industry, performing daily observations by producer/employees had the highest estimated implementation. Reduced environmental viral load through pathogen reduction had the lowest estimated implementation in the swine and beef cattle industries. In the dairy industry, monitoring production records for health status changes had the highest estimated implementation, and line of separation in place for all employees entering premises had the lowest. Swine experts considered separation line for all animals entering/leaving premises and reduced environmental viral load through pathogen reduction the most and least effective and feasible, respectively. Stabilization and monitoring for affected premises and daily observations by producer/employees were identified as most effective and feasible by beef cattle and dairy experts, respectively.All-in and all-out production was rated least effective and feasible by both beef cattle and dairy experts.

The primary objective was assessment of effect of sample pooling on Tritrichomonas foetus detection using qPCR in beef bulls within 5 logs of trichomonad concentration in spiked preputial samples. The secondary objective was to use qPCR Ct values to estimate the percentage of beef bulls in the field population within each log of trichomonad concentration. Solutions containing none, 1,10,100,1000 and 10,000 trichomonads (T)/ml were made and tested by qPCR. Test sensitivities for single positive samples were: 1 T/ml, 20/40 (50%); 10 T/ml, 40/40 (100%); 100 T/ml, 40/40 (100%); 1000 T/ml, 40/40 (100%); 10,000 T/ml, 40/40 (100%). For 5-sample pools (1 positive and 4 negative), sensitivities were: 1 T/ml, 6/40 (15%), 10 T/ml, 26/40 (65%); 100 T/ml 40/40 (100%); 1000 T/ml, 40/40 (100%); 10,000 T/ml, 40/40 (100%). Specificity for both single and pooled negative samples was 40/40 negative (100%). Diagnostic field samples (n = 130) in which T. foetus was detected by qPCR were classified by Ct to estimate the proportion of positive bulls within each trichomonad concentration: 1 T/ml 10 (7.7%); 10 T/ml 17 (13.1%); ≥ 100 T/ml 103 (79.2%). Accounting for the above sensitivities and proportions of bulls, sensitivity for trichomoniasis detection in the bull population was 96.2% using single preputial samples and 88.9% using 5-sample pools. Therefore 7.3% of all T. foetus-positive bulls were not detected using 5-sample pools compared with using single samples. Detection of bovine trichomoniasis by qPCR is minimally affected by using 5-sample pools, considering the trichomonad concentration of most positive bulls.

A cross-sectional study aimed to assess major GI nematode, parasite burden and associated risk factors as well as the current practices of anthelmintics utilization was conducted from September 2015 to August 2016 in selected districts of east and western Hararghe zones. In the study faecal samples were collected from randomly selected 768 ruminants’ (cattle, sheep and goats) and coprological examinations and EPG techniques were employed. The study result indicated occurrence of GI nematode has statistically differences (p<0.05) in all considered risk factors: age, sex, species, body condition and origin of animals and overall prevalence was 51.3% (394/7680). The infection rate was higher in ovine (63.33%) species than in bovine (36.84%) and caprine (52.67%). The current study also revealed the major GI nematodes at the study areas were Strongyle type (16.15%), Haemonchus (13.67%), Oesophagostomum (11.07%), Strongyloides (3.91%) and Trichuris (1.05%), whereas 5.47% (42/768) was recorded as mixed nematode infection. Questionnaire survey in this study indicated majority of the respondents had poor to no information on economic importance GI nematode (71.67%) and anthelmintic drugs utilization (83.61%). Albendazole, Tetramisole and Ivermectin are the commonly available anthelmintics for GI nematode infection treatment at our study area. On the other hand, about 35.83% of animal owners had free access to drugs from general shop (nonprofessional traders) and 24.17% (87/360) had used traditional medicinal plants of unknown doses. The study revealed that high prevalence of nematode infection in ruminates and majority of the people in the study area lack awareness on economic importance of GI nematode though they had free access to anthelmintics with no understanding of drug resistance. Therefore, there should be detail awareness creation and the need of further investigation to develop control and prevention strategies.

A cross sectional study was carried in Aloet Parish, Soroti district-Uganda to assess and quantify the prevalence of mastitis of lactating cows at cow level in the villages and udder quarter level for cows brought for sale at the Soroti livestock market. The objective was to acquire an empirical basis for stakeholders’ awareness in the small holder pastoral zones. Both clinical and subclinical mastitis were quantified at the village level and only SCM was considered at the market level. In the villages and the market SCM was tested using California Mastitis Test (CMT). In the villages of Aloet, 4 (12.5%) of the crosses and 60 (22.4%) Small East African zebu had mastitis. Overall, SCM and CM were at 50 (16.7%) and 14 (4.7%) occurrence and SCM was responsible for 78% of all the mastitis. Predisposing factors to mastitis among the pastoralists in communal grazing systems in Aloet were possibly habits such as stripping of teats using rough abrasion of fingers during milking coupled with none usage of milking salves. In the market, the right fore (RF) had a 34.2% (27/79) SCM and 1.25% (1/80) blind quarters. Right hind (RH) had a 30.8% (24/78) SCM and 2.5% (2/80) blind quarters. The left fore (LF) had a 36.6% (27/78) SCM and 2.5% (2/80) blind quarters. The left hind (LH) had a 31.4% (22/70) SCM and 12.5% blind quarters. The quarter prevalence rates were higher for the fore quarters than for the hind quarters. For all the quarters SCM prevalence was at 32.8% (100/305) and 4.9% (15/320) were blind. Bovine mastitis is an escalating hindrance to the upcoming dairy industry in agro-pastoral areas and requires urgent measures, SCM is possibly confounded by poor performance of local breeds and poor feeding management.

The need to improve the quality of data for a better analysis and understanding of zoonoses’ trend at country level has been increased year by year both by the EFSA and by reporting countries. In the framework of an EFSA’s Grant project, aimed to complement the zoonoses historical database, an expert system based on logical rules of truth tables was put in place within the Italian information system for zoonoses data collection (SINZoo). During data entry, the truth tables check that, for each zoonoses, the combination of the area of interest, each possible sampling context, stage and sampling unit has been entered correctly, thus avoiding inconsistent data. Each combination available in the truth tables indicates the context, the stage, the sampling unit allowed for each zoonosis in a specific area and for a category of species. The goal of the project was achieved for most of the information to be retrieved: the 89% and the 83% of sampling contexts and stages respectively and the 100% of the other information were retrieved. To date, the truth tables developed for specific zoonoses have become integral part of SINZoo, allowing to avoid mistakes during data reporting. Data quality is the pillar for any analysis and to perform risk analysis: the logical rules of truth tables can be implemented in other information systems involved in data collection in the field of animal health and food safety, increasing both the consistence and the coherence of the data reported.

Sheep and goat pox is highly devastating viral systemic disease of sheep and got. This disease is manifested by skin and internal lesions, fever, conjunctivitis, with oculonasal discharge and excess salivation. The objective of this paper was to review epidemiology and economic importance sheep and goat pox with special emphasis on both the past and currents aspects. The causative agent of Sheep and goat pox is sheep and goat pox virus of family poxoviaride, genus capripoxvirus. The poxviruses of Sheep pox and goat pox viruses are distinct, but hard to differentiate and Recombination can occur. Sheep and goat virus can survive in the environment for prolonged time. Today, Sheep and Goat Pox is found in most parts of Africa (mainly north of the equator), portion of India, central Asia (including south Russia and western China) and the Middle East. In Ethiopia, the disease is distributed in all regions and in endemic areas the disease are economically important due to production losses because of decreased weight gain, milk yield, damage to wool and hides, cause abortion, and increased susceptibility to other disease, while also being a direct cause of death. The diseases are more severe in young animal then adults. Infected animals can acts as the main cause of spreading SGP viruses. Since these diseases have no effective drug the treatment should be directed at preventing secondary bacterial infection. Furthermore, the animal should be vaccinated with commercially available attenuated vaccine as the main control measure in endemic regions.

Newcastle disease is an acute, contagious viral disease of birds. It is one of the most important diseases which cause great economic loss in poultry industry. The virus that cause Newcastle disease is grouped under family Paramyxoviridae in the genus Avulavirus and species avian paramyxovirus type 1 (APMV-1) or Newcastle disease virus. Based on their virulence Newcastle disease virus can be divided in to viscerotropic, neurotropic, mesogenic and lentogenic strain. Although avian paramyxovirus type 1(APMV-1) can affect many species of birds including wild birds, Chickens are highly susceptible to the disease. The objectives of this paper were to highlight the epidemiology, diagnostic technique and control measures involved in Newcastle disease. Newcastle disease is currently distributed throughout the world including Central and South America, Asia, Middle East and Africa. APMV-1 can be transmitted by inhalation or ingestion, and birds shed these viruses in both feces and respiratory secretions. The virus can also be transmitted through direct contact with infected flock and indirect contact with contaminated materials. This disease can be diagnosed based history of disease outbreak, some pathognomic sign and laboratory test such as virus isolation, serological test and molecular technique. The latter has more important being its sensitive and rapid for diagnosis of the disease. Currently both live and killed vaccines are used in many countries to control and prevent the disease in chickens. Furthermore, strict biosecurity and separation infected once from health flock are also important to control and prevent spread of disease. Generally to make poultry free of this disease, good biosecurity and continual vaccination should be maintained.

A cross-sectional study was carried out in sheep and goats kept under extensive management system in Tullo district, Western Harerghe zone of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia, during the period from November, 2013 to April, 2014. The main objectives of the study were to estimate the prevalence of nematode infection in small ruminants and to assess associated risk factors with its occurrence. A total of 384 fecal samples were collected from 168 sheep and 216 goats. The samples were examined using floatation technique and eggs per gram of faeces were determined. The overall prevalence for the nematode infection was 50.8% (195/384). Different nematode eggs including Strongyle (177, 46.1%), Strongyloides (35, 9.1%) and Trichuris eggs (31, 8.1%) were identified. The mean eggs per gram count showed that, 100 (56.5%) were heavily infected, 61(34.5%) were moderately infected and the remaining were lightly infected. The coproculture examination from the positive samples for strongyle eggs revealed the presence of Trichostrongylus species (sp), Haemonchus sp., Oesophagostomum sp., Cooperia sp., and Bunostomum sp. Gastrointestinal nematode parasitism is more prevalent (AOR=2.23) in sheep as compared to goats. It was also higher in animals with poor (AOR=4.54) and medium body conditions (AOR=2.02) as compared to animals with good body conditions. However, there was no statistically significant association between the occurrence of the infection and age, sex and origin of the animals’. In conclusion, gastrointestinal nematode parasites were highly prevalent in the study area and this could hamper health and productivity of the small ruminants. Thus, strategic control of nematode parasites should be planned and implemented to reduce the economic losses and welfare problems of the animals.

Across sectional study survey of the major work related lameness in donkey in and around Hawassa was under taken to determine the main causes of lameness in working donkeys and associated risk factor s. A total of 205 lame donkeys have been examined and their owners were interviewed to assess the possible cause of lameness and the type of management conditions. The result reveal that donkeys found in study area mainly cart pulling donkeys (96.5%) and about 99.5% of working donkeys are male. The result of questioner survey and visual study reveal that the main causes of lameness in donkey are ;28.3% is muscular and tendon problem,21.5% is joint problem,5.4% is bone problem, 20.0% is tendon problems,13.2% is hoof problem and 27.0% is other associated risk factor were shown to cause lameness in working donkey with the extreme significant (p<0.0001).the major types of lameness encountered during the study was supportive leg lameness (47.3%) and with the least of non weight bearing lameness were encountered with the significant of (p<0.0001).the result of this study suggested that in spite of varies use of donkey; they are confronted by series of health and welfare problem. Joint problem, tendon problem, hoof problem, bone problem and other relative risk factor; abusing, over loading, over working and unnecessary neglect and general maltreatment that are causing lameness are still prevalent health and welfare problem. The public veterinary clinic is almost lacking medical equipment and medicine; meant foot treating of lame donkey, therefore, further study on lameness and welfare constraints hindering the efficient use of donkey in region is of paramount importance.

Fasciolosis is an important helminthic infection causing economic losses due to morbidity and mortality thereby contributing to loss in productivity to livestock industry in Ethiopia. A cross sectional study was, therefore, conducted from December 2015 to April 2016 to determine the prevalence of ovine fasciolosis in four peasant associations in Shirka Woreda, Arsi, Ethiopia. Sedimentation technique was employed to detect Fasciola eggs during the study. A total of 384 sheep were involved in the study amongst which 118 were found to be positive with an overall prevalence of 30.70 per cent. Zenbabahella, Hanu Jawe, Sole Ferekesa and HelaTijoSero peasant associations (PAs) accounted for 35, 30.8, 34.8 and 23.076 per cent, respectively. The prevalence of fasciolosis was associated with different variables. Young sheep (31.62%) showed higher prevalence rate than adult sheep (29.6%). Prevalence of fasciolosis by sex was 35% and 29.2% in male and female, respectively. In addition, sheep with poor body condition (34%) showed higher prevalence than their counterparts. Over all, none of the variables has shown statistical difference (p>0.05). Therefore, based on the above information ovine fasciolosis was prevalent in the studied areas and could be potential basis for economic loss in these areas. Thus strategies aimed at the parasite and its intermediate host as well appropriate grazing management practices in the study area are recommended.